Hellenistic Civilization
n the final decades of the fourth century b.c., a small nation conquered most of the known world. Within two generations, Macedonia, a region in the northern Greek peninsula, fielded an army that defeated all the major powers of its time. The effects of this conquest were to directly shape world history for over three hundred years, and influence the West to the present day.
Unlike the Greek city-states, Macedonia was ruled by a king, and though politically independent of Greece, it was rooted in Greek culture. Because of the Macedonian conquests, much of the ancient world came under Greek influence or direct military control of the Greeks. The Greek rulers brought their own way of doing things to the ancient Near East, and the Jewish people living in Palestine and throughout the Persian Empire faced a new threat to the practice of their religion.
The word “Hellenism” comes from Hellas, the Greek word for “Greek.” Hellenism refers to the spread of Greek culture throughout the ancient Mediterranean world. And many scholars use the term “Hellenistic period” to describe the ancient Near East and western Asia from about 323 to 31 b.c. The Hellenistic period began when Alexander the Great built his empire, and it continued after Alexander's death and the collapse of his empire, as the generals who served under Alexander battled and schemed for power over parts of that empire.
Alexander's invasion secured a 30-mile wide corridor from Persia to India. Along the invasion route, city-states, designed in the Greek style, were built to serve as supply stations and military centers for Alexander's army. Local populations were often forced to move to these new Greek cities, and had to learn Greek ways of life. Hellenistic culture spread throughout the ancient Near East and far into Asia (see the article called “After the Exile: God's People Return to Judea.” )
From Afghanistan to Egypt, the ancient world was flooded with Greek settlers who brought their language, culture, and traditions to conquered kingdoms. Though the conquered lands did not change their basic administrative structures, each of Alexander's successors ruled a part of Alexander's empire, and during the Hellenistic period, these successors engaged in repeated boundary wars with one another. For about 250 years, the descendants of these kings would rule Judea. (See the note at the beginning of the book of Daniel “The Ptolemies and the Seleucids”) The wars of Alexander's successors brought the disintegration of Alexander's empire, but the new dynasties in Egypt and Syria helped to shape the Mediterranean and western Asia into a more integrated area for trade and learning.
The Economies of the New Greek Kingdoms
Lured by offers of free land, Greek farmers, trades people, merchants, and their families settled throughout the conquered territories. Many of these settlers became soldiers or local government officials.
As people left the city-states of mainland Greece to settle in the territories, new cultural centers emerged. The old city-states in Greece declined in importance while the new Greek cities in other parts of the Hellenistic world grew and flourished. Under the influence of Alexander's general Ptolemy and his successors, the city-state of Alexandria in Egypt became very powerful and rich. Alexandria had so much influence on the region's business, literature, and art that this period is sometimes called the “Alexandrian Age,” and historians usually set the end of Hellenistic civilization with the conquest of Alexandria by the Roman Empire in the first century b.c. Pergamum in Asia Minor was also a prominent city, and so were other cities like Dura-Europos on the mid-Euphrates River and Antioch on the Orontes River. Navigators expanded the known boundaries of the world, discovering new trade routes such as those to the North Sea and to India.
The increase in trade brought great wealth to merchants and to the upper classes. These newly wealthy people often displayed their wealth by commissioning buildings with flashy and impressive architecture, and town plans and buildings of the period were well designed and beautiful.
Unfortunately, the increase in the wealth of the upper classes of the cities did not help the poor people of the region. The poor, who mostly lived and farmed in rural areas, were poorer than they had previously been. The social structure of Greece, such as the Athenian style of democracy, gave citizens a clear picture of their place in society. However, in the new Hellenistic cities, people had less involvement with their own governments. Alexander and his generals tried to establish democratic governments for city-states, but in practice, the citizens of these city-states had little power against their rulers. In these new kingdoms, there was a greater acceptance of large-scale poverty, especially since large estates controlled most of the farming areas. (For more, see the article called “The Poor.” )
Along with growing populations of poor people were a growing number of wealthy, Greek-speaking city dwellers. With the growth of wealth and expansion of commerce came the emergence of a highly organized banking system. (See the chart called “Banking and Money in the Ancient World.” )
Hellenistic Customs
The Hellenistic world saw the rise of new political freedoms for women, but Greek customs still governed the lives of most of the Greek settlers. Men were away from home a great deal of the time. When not at the market place (called the agora), the men tended their fields, served as government administrators, carried on sea trade, hunted, or worked at a skilled trade. After the evening meal, men might entertain their male friends at a “symposium,” a popular style of drinking party limited to men only. Men might also take part in wrestling matches, ride horses, or attend public lectures.
In the public sphere, women had less freedom than men did. Women were allowed to attend certain public events, such as weddings or festivals, and were able to visit their female friends. The main responsibility of women was to maintain their house and raise their children. In the Hellenistic period, however, it became more acceptable for women to study and acquire education. A number of powerful female rulers, such as several named Cleopatra in Ptolemaic Egypt, appeared throughout the Hellenistic kingdoms. Their example may have helped to increase tolerance for new activities by women.
Like many cultures of the ancient world, Greek culture was based on slavery. Most households kept slaves. Female slaves prepared meals, cleaned the house and grounds, and worked in the gardens or the fields. Male slaves did manual labor, helped manage the owner's estate, guarded the house, and even served as tutors to young boys. In general, the lives of most slaves were similar to the lives of the poor citizens. (See the article called “Slaves and Servants in the Time of Jesus.” )
Parents had to decide whether to keep a child immediately after that child's birth. If they decided against keeping the newborn, it was abandoned (“exposed”) to die. Newborn babies were often welcomed into a home by a name-giving ceremony, called an Amphidromnia, in which the father would carry his child around the household. This traditional dance was also meant to welcome new members of the community, and was adopted and modified by early Christians as the ceremony of christening. After the birth of a baby, it was traditional for friends and relatives to give gifts. A traditional Greek family might also decorate their doorway with a wreath of olives (for a boy) or wool (for a girl).
Hellenistic Ideas
The Greek ideas that were brought to the conquered nations were often shocking to people steeped in ancient traditions. For instance, the Greeks accepted “humanism,” a view of the world where human reason and independence are central values. Greek humanism emphasized the human ability to reason, and held that art, beauty, and happiness were important for proper living. Humanism has its roots in the active intellectual life of Greece's “Golden Age” (also called ancient Greece's “classical period”), which lasted from about 480 to 323 b.c.
Almost every part of our modern scientific, philosophical, educational, political, athletic, and artistic traditions has been influenced by ancient Greek culture. The ancient Greeks created a complicated system of education for all ages that included networks of informal teachers, educational competitions, and schools. Ancient Greek culture enriched people's ability to understand the world. They made great educational progress over earlier societies, and expanded the areas of thought, including encouraging people to think critically (make reasonable judgments) without fear of punishment. Political democracy arose in ancient Greece, where free speech and public criticism were rights.
People in ancient Greece did not consider the acquisition of wealth to be a great achievement. They thought that people who were only interested in wealth and power should be avoided or ignored. Few people became famous because of their wealth or power alone. The Greeks honored and admired people who had achieved success in some field. When Alexander's conquests brought Persia under Greek control, the Greek attitude toward wealth clashed with the Persian ideal of wealth and luxury. To the Greeks, the Persian desire for luxury was corrupt and shallow.
The ancient Greeks delighted in competition, and their social life was full of contests and competitions. In sports, competition was based on rules, and athletes could not expect to win because of their family's wealth, political influence, or bribery. Because clothing could identify a person's family, wealth, or social standing, athletes competed in the nude as a way of showing that they were all equal on the playing field. By rewarding people for their abilities, instead of for their wealth or family connections, the ancient Greeks inspired each other to do their best. These values were affirmed by the ancient Olympic Games, which included literary, dramatic, and musical contests as well as physical contests.
Over the centuries, many non-Greek peoples adopted Greek concepts. The ancient Romans, who conquered much of Greece in the second century b.c., also adopted much of Greek culture. The Romans shared religious customs with the Greeks. For example, many of the Roman gods resemble the Greek gods (see the chart called “Greek and Roman Gods and Goddesses.” )
To understand how the spread of Greek culture was both a challenge and a stimulus to the Jewish people, it is important to compare some typical attitudes of Jewish and Greek cultures. Whereas the Greeks believed that people could know the truth through reason, Jewish people believed that the truth could only be known through studying God's Law (Torah) and carrying out God's will. Greeks believed that their freedom came from the city-state or the social system; the Israelites believed that their freedom came from God, and that people could be free even under a harsh king. Greeks did not practice circumcision. They believed that the human body was a source of beauty and energy, and depicted the human body in works of art. The Jewish people believed that they should cover their bodies, and were forbidden by the Law of Moses from glorifying the human body or objects in works of art.
The Design of Greek Cities
Hellenistic Greek cities were designed as rectangular grids and built on level ground. An average city street might be about 18-feet wide, and was planned to be part of the same rectangular city grid. Public architecture used the new sense of space created by regularly arranged, wide streets to highlight public statues or important public buildings. Public art was used to portray positive role models, and the streets were often lined with statues of heroes.
The most important center of Greek life was the agora. This large, open public space served as a meeting place for the citizens. It was the political, social, religious, and business center of a Greek city. In and around the agora, citizens constructed buildings for these purposes. The CEV refers to the agora as “the market” (Matthew 20.3; Acts 17.17). The formal layout of the agora was developed in the Hellenistic period.
Most cities had stadiums, theaters, fountains, temples, hippodromes (stadiums for equestrian sports), and public baths. Every city had its gymnasium, a center for physical and intellectual culture. All the important citizens of a city were expected to belong to this institution. Social and business success came only by accepting Greek culture, and many Jewish people sought to learn Greek, claimed Greek ancestors, and joined Greek institutions.
Hellenistic Science
The Hellenistic world produced some of the greatest scientists of all time. Combining Babylonian science with earlier Greek science, the scientists of the Hellenistic world made some of the most important and basic discoveries of natural laws. Because Greek culture emphasized the power of human reason to understand the universe, thinkers of the Hellenistic period provided fundamental advances in science, logic, philosophy, and history.
Euclid was a mathematician who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, from about 330 to 260 b.c. In his Elements of Geometry, Euclid brought together all the known Greek and Egyptian teachings on geometry. Euclid presented the basic rules of geometry in an organized way. His work was so useful to physics and mathematics that Elements of Geometry continued to be used as a school textbook for the next two thousand years.
Aristarchus was a mathematician and astronomer who lived on the island of Samos from about 310 to 230 b.c. He believed that the earth and other planets revolved around the sun, and applied geometry to the study of planets and stars.
Archimedes lived from about 287 to 212 b.c. in Syracuse, a city-state on the island of Sicily, and had studied at the Museum in Alexandria. Many scholars consider Archimedes to be one of the greatest scientists of all time. He made major discoveries in physics, mathematics, and astronomy. He invented a way of expressing large numbers and is credited with creating the system of scientific notation (powers of ten) that we use today. His most famous theorem, which gives the weight of an object immersed in a liquid, is called “Archimedes' principle.” Among his many inventions and discoveries, Archimedes created a planetarium, systems of compound pulleys, and designed a ship large enough to carry more than fifty times the cargo of the ships of his time. Archimedes also invented many tools and machines for warfare, such as ship-destroying cranes and catapults that fired quarter-ton stones, which were used to defend Syracuse against Roman invasion.
Eratosthenes, who lived from about 275 to 195 b.c., was head of the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, and a poet, scholar, and astronomer. Using knowledge about the way the earth tilts, he was able to figure out the circumference of the earth to within 185 miles. Eratosthenes believed the earth was round and said that a ship could reach India by sailing west.
Medicine also improved. The Greeks considered medicine a trade like any other, and fathers passed their skills on to their sons. In the Hellenistic period, students still were apprenticed to individual doctors, and there was wide interest in medicine. In the third century b.c., medical schools were built in Alexandria. Doctors learned that blood flows through the heart. Hellenistic doctors first discovered the nervous system of the human body, and they identified the brain as the center of thought. The physician Herophilus of Chalcedon (335-280 b.c.) dissected corpses to learn more about the structure of the human body. Erasistratus of Chios (circa 304-250 b.c.) continued Herophilus' use of dissection and discovered the difference between arteries and veins. Many of these doctors believed that medicine could be based solely on a general theory of the body. Others were followers of the Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived from about 460 to 370 b.c. Instead of assuming that illness was caused by an attack from the gods as earlier Greek doctors had done, Hippocrates asked the question, “What is making this person sick?” Hippocrates urged doctors to seek natural explanations for illness and to base their skills on experience with patients rather than on magic or a set of philosophical beliefs.
Hellenistic Philosophy
In the centuries that followed the famous Greek philosophers Socrates (who died in 399 b.c.), Plato (427-347 b.c.), and Aristotle (484-322 b.c.), changes in the political and cultural climate of the ancient world discouraged many kinds of philosophical thought. Although daily life in the Hellenistic period remained Greek in spirit, political power was held by a central state, and was sustained primarily through military force. The earlier Greek traditions of government disappeared and citizens had little say in shaping the social decisions affecting their lives.
Compared to Plato and Aristotle (See the article called “Religions and Philosophies in Bible Times,” ), Hellenistic philosophers cared less about how to make an ideal state or nation where people could live happier lives. Instead, philosophers tried to describe the attitudes and actions that would help a person to live well, in spite of the hardships they endured in a Hellenistic kingdom. These philosophers addressed the question, “How should I live in a world beyond my control?”
Epicurus (341-270 b.c.) was one of the most important philosophers of the time. The ancient philosophers known as “atomists” (Leucippus, 450-370 b.c. and Democritus, 460-370 b.c.) said that the natural world consisted of many material particles, whose actions explain everything that happens. In the Hellenistic period, philosophers thought about what that meant for the way people conducted their lives. Epicurus and his followers believed that everything that happens is outside of direct human control. Thus, in his Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus wrote that the proper goal of life is to achieve peace of mind and avoid pain. Epicureanism was not a simple pleasure-seeking philosophy, such as the hedonistic philosophy of Aristippus (a student of Socrates who lived from 435 to 366 b.c.) which could be summed up as advising that one should “Take life easy, eat, drink, and enjoy yourself” (See Luke 12:19.) Instead, Epicureanism stressed moderation and placed intellectual pleasures above physical pleasures.
The Stoics were a rival school of philosophy. Stoics believed that living according to nature (which they identified with God) was the most important virtue. Later stoics like Epictetus (55-135 a.d.), Seneca (4 b.c.–65 a.d.), and Marcus Aurelius (121-180 a.d.) continued the stoic teachings through their lives and writings.
Skepticism was another active force in Hellenistic philosophy. The skeptics believed that human knowledge was extremely limited. Skepticism began with Pyrrho of Elis (360-270 b.c.), a thinker who took part in Alexander the Great's Indian expedition and met with Indian philosophers. Pyrrho taught that beyond what we know from our senses, people have no knowledge of things as they really are. He taught that since we cannot really learn about the nature of the world, human beings should try not to judge things, and that this would bring peace of mind.
During the Hellenistic period, some thinkers tried to merge Greek philosophical traditions with Judaism. Many scholars consider Philo of Alexandria (20 b.c.–50 a.d.), sometimes called Philo Judaeus, to be the most important representative of Hellenistic Judaism. Philo tried to bring together Plato's philosophy and Jewish religion. Because he believed that God had inspired both the Jewish Scriptures and the Greek philosophy, Philo was sure that it must be possible to combine the two views. He interpreted the Jewish Scriptures as an allegory (a teaching story full of symbols). According to Philo, God's goodness is expressed through the divine word, in Greek called logos (see John 1.1-3), which he saw as the principle that organizes everything in the universe.
Hellenistic philosophy also influenced Christianity through the writings of Plotinus, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, and Rome in the third century a.d. Even though Plotinus lived after the Hellenistic Period, he is often considered the last of the Hellenistic philosophers. In his book called The Six Enneads, Plotinus used Plato's writings to put forward a complete view of the universe. According to Plotinus, the goodness of God (which he called “the form of the Good”) is the source of everything in the universe. Early Christians identified Plotinus' “the goodness of God” with the God of Scriptures, and the philosophy of Plotinus influenced the Christian tradition for centuries.
Religions
The Greek worship of the Olympian gods (See the chart called “Greek and Roman Gods and Goddesses” ) involved large public festivals and luxurious celebrations. In some areas, the eastern practice of worshiping rulers became part of Greek culture. But the poor people of the new Hellenistic cities looked for a religion that could comfort them in times of trouble and uncertainty.
Some Greeks began to learn and practice Judaism, and these may be like the “Gentiles” mentioned in Acts 17.4, who listened to the apostle Paul in the Greek city of Thessalonica. During this period, the Jewish Scriptures were translated into Greek in Alexandria, a translation known as the Septuagint. (See the article called “How the Bible Came to Us.” )
The most popular religions of the time were the various “mystery cults.” These cults often involved secret rites of initiation (“mysteries”) and beliefs about immortality, such as those of the cults of Demeter and Dionysus (see the article called “Religions and Philosophies in Bible Times” ). Many cults were open only to men. Some of the most popular involved ancient gods of Persia or Egypt.
Mithra was an ancient Persian god of wisdom and light. Mithra cults were among those open only to men, and became extremely popular with the Roman army and throughout the ancient Mediterranean world. By the second century a.d., Mithraism was still more widespread than Christianity.
Serapis combined the qualities of two Egyptian gods, Osiris, god of the underworld, and Apis, a bull god symbolizing fertility. One of the most splendid buildings of the Hellenistic period, the Serapeum, was built for his worship in Alexandria. Worship of Serapis continued until the third century a.d. and ruins of sanctuaries in his honor have been found in England.
Literature
After Alexander's conquests, Greek was the accepted language of the educated world. Writers of this period produced a great amount of literature. The audience for Greek literature grew in Hellenistic cities, and the audience for literature formed two basic types: popular literature for the large Greek-speaking audiences, and specialized writing for highly intellectual readers.
Many people of all walks of life and levels of status were learning to read in the Hellenistic period. But theater continued to be the most popular form of literature, as it had been for the ancient Greeks. Archaeological excavations show that even small cities had theaters. Many of the basic forms of drama that people enjoy today (such as comedy and tragedy) were developed by the ancient Greeks, where drama was considered a form of education. In the Hellenistic period, however, theater was largely considered a form of entertainment. A simpler style of comedy (which scholars call “the New Comedy”) was produced by writers such as Menander, who lived from about 342 to 290 b.c. Dramatic literature was no longer concerned with serious moral or political issues; instead, it featured stock characters and family dramas.
Another popular form of literature in the Hellenistic period is the epigram. The epigram was a very short, witty poem, usually with a surprise ending. Considered by scholars to be one of the oldest forms of Greek literature, epigrams were originally written as public poems inscribed on gravestones and monuments. Epigrams of the Hellenistic period were less formal than earlier examples; more often, they expressed the personal concerns of their authors.
The libraries of Alexandria and Pergamum were great centers of learning and were known for works of literary criticism, anthologies, and catalogs of written works. Famous poets such as Callimachus (about 280 to 245 b.c.) and Theocritus (about 310 to 250 b.c.) wrote during this time, and new forms of literature emerged, such as action-packed romances (see the mini-article called “Ancient Romance Writing”).
Hellenistic Art
Hellenistic art has many styles and reflects the cultural mix of the new Greek kingdoms ruled by Alexander's generals and their successors. As these kingdoms grew, Greek art and architecture became more mixed in its styles. The great art centers were no longer in mainland Greece but in the islands, such as Rhodes, and in cities such as Pergamum in Asia, Alexandria in Egypt, and Antioch in Syria. Artists and craftsmen were encouraged to move to the new Hellenistic kingdoms. Art centers developed away from Greece, and the styles of art absorbed many different local influences.
Hellenistic sculpture shows this great variety. Some sculptures were created in the older tradition of simple, balanced forms (classical), but others were more complicated and full of details. Some sculptures tried to represent perfect images of people and things as they should be (idealization), but other sculptures tried to show people as they really were (realism). Many of the most famous sculptures that have survived from ancient times, for example, the Venus of Miloand the Dying Gaul, were created during the Hellenistic period.
Art was used in Greek religion, and also to honor famous athletes. During the Hellenistic period, sculpture and painting began to be used to decorate the homes of the wealthy citizens. Hellenistic artists created portraits of individuals and large group portraits, but also worked on simple subjects. Art now portrayed people of every age and occupation. There was even an interest in caricature (cartoon-like exaggeration). Artists began to produce accurate copies of art works, and began to deliberately create works in older styles.
People's new sense of order and space, which was shown in Greek city design, began to be expressed in sculpture and painting. Landscapes and interiors (views of the inside of a building or home) appeared for the first time in both reliefs (a type of wall sculpture involving raised images on a flat background) and painted panels.
One of the most famous examples of Hellenistic art is the Altar of Zeus at Pergamum, which is dated about 180 b.c. The altar was contained on a raised platform decorated on three sides with a frieze (an architectural ornamental band extending around the inner walls) that showed a ferocious battle between gods and giants. Many styles of Hellenistic art came together in this work. Religious images like the altar were part of the older Greek tradition. But the frieze was created in the style of the new Hellenistic art. Pagan gods, giants, and animals were carved to exaggerate movement, physical pain, and extreme emotion, and set against a background that heightened the sense of motion.
Some Hellenistic painting has also survived, such as in tombs with painted facades (the decorative outside of a building) and painted interiors. Archaeologists have discovered many Roman copies of Hellenistic Greek paintings in Rome and Pompeii. Some images have also survived in mosaics (pictures made of inlaid tiles or glass), an art form which reached a high level of craftsmanship during the Hellenistic period.
Conflict with Judaism
Hellenistic influence in the ancient Near East resulted in a mix of Greek culture and local cultures. The way of life of the Jewish people in Palestine (as well as those of other societies in the Near East) was changed.
Before Alexander defeated the Persian king Darius at Issus in 333 b.c., Judea was a small but geographically important Persian province. Following his conquest of the region, Alexander allowed the Jews to practice their religion and continue their traditional ways without interference. Alexander's tolerant policy toward his subjects continued while the Ptolemies controlled Judea.
In 198 b.c., Judea was captured by King Antiochus III of the Seleucids. At first, the Seleucids gave the people of Judea more freedoms, including a charter for self-government according to the Law of Moses.
But by the beginning of the second century b.c., Hellenistic Jews (those Jews who had fully accepted Greek ways) controlled the high priesthood in Jerusalem. Jason was appointed high priest, and Jerusalem was established as a Greek city with Greek educational institutions. When Menelaus replaced Jason as high priest, a civil war started. Wealthy aristocrats supported Menelaus but the average people supported Jason.
At the request of supporters of Menelaus, the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes got involved in the civil war. Antiochus made decrees against the practice of Judaism, and used brutal and humiliating tactics to enforce his decrees (See 1 Maccabees 1.41-64.) including placing a statue of Zeus in the temple of Jerusalem (called “The Horrible Thing” in 1 Maccabees 1.54).
Antiochus' disregard for God's Law sparked a popular revolt. It was led by an old priest, Mattathias, and his sons, who became known as the Maccabees or Hasmoneans. Judas Maccabeus, son of Mattathias, directed a guerilla war that ended in the capture of Jerusalem in 164 b.c. The temple in Jerusalem was cleansed and rededicated to the Lord. The celebration lasted eight days. Jewish people still celebrate this festival, known as “Hanukkah.” (See the chart called “Jewish Calendar and Festivals” in the article, “People of the Law: The Religion of Israel.” )
From the time of the exile to Babylonia and throughout the Hellenistic period, more and more Jews came to live in lands far from Palestine. These “dispersed Jews” became part of what is called the Diaspora. Most Jews of the Diaspora were unable to travel the great distance to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices during pilgrimage festivals. Because of this, many Jews began to emphasize prayer and the close study of Scripture (the Torah) in synagogues over Temple sacrifice.
Later Maccabean rulers began to accept and endorse some elements of Hellenistic culture. According to the Jewish historian Josephus, Jonathan (the successor of Judas Maccabeus) negotiated a treaty of friendship with the Greek city of Sparta (see also 1 Maccabees 12.5-18). Other Maccabean leaders hired Greeks as soldiers and stamped their coins in Greek as well as in Hebrew. King Herod I (ruled Judea from 37 b.c. to 4 a.d.) built a Greek theater, amphitheater (an arena with rising seats curved around it), and a hippodrome in or near Jerusalem.
The rebellion of the Maccabees created an independent Jewish state that lasted until 63 b.c., when the Romans conquered the ancient Near East. The Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem, and all of Palestine became part of the Roman Empire.
The conflict between Judaism and Hellenism challenged Jews to remain faithful to the Law (Torah) as God's chosen people. During this period, many Jewish people died for their faith. But the Hellenistic period should also be remembered as an active and important age for art, science, philosophy, and commerce. Modern civilization, and Christianity itself, has been shaped by the influences and ideas that resulted from this conflict of cultures. When the Romans conquered the Mediterranean world, they gathered and studied many aspects of Hellenistic culture. In turn, the Romans passed on what they learned from Hellenistic civilizations to later civilizations.