he story of trade and travel in the ancient Near East tells how those civilizations developed. The Bible, other documents of the times, and archaeological discoveries give a general picture of how ancient peoples traded with one another, where the most important trade centers were, and how they traveled and transported their goods to these marketplaces. But the complete story has yet to be pieced together from the information available to us.
No clear evidence has been found to show how the earliest human beings traveled. Archaeologists date the earliest evidence of any kind of travel from the end of the “Ice Age,” about 40,000 years ago. Evidence suggests that some kind of trading occurred in prehistoric times, since many raw materials, including “luxury” items like amber, have been found far from their likely sources. After the last glaciers of the Ice Age melted (around 12,000 years ago), people began to grow crops and raise livestock. The steady supply of food produced by farming created the conditions for people to live in towns and cities. From these early times to today, trade and travel encouraged each other to grow and expand.
Early Israelites
Before they settled in Canaan, the earliest ancestors of the Israelites were nomads, which means that they lived by moving herds of sheep and goats from place to place to find good pastures. For example, the Bible tells us how Abraham moved with Sarah and their family from Ur in Chaldea (at the head of the Persian Gulf) to Canaan in Palestine (Gen 11.26–12.9). Like other nomadic peoples, Abraham and his descendants lived in tents, temporary dwellings that were easy to set up and take down. Abraham's grandson Jacob moved his whole family to Egypt because there was a famine in Canaan where they lived (Gen 46.5-28). His sons and their families remained in Egypt for many years until Moses led them out of Egypt and across the Sinai peninsula. They lived there in tents for forty years as they made their way back to the land of Canaan. Besides the sheep and oxen they took with them, they may have had donkeys and camels to carry them and their belongings (Gen 12.16; 22.3; 24.10; 42.26).
The earliest Israelites traded in animals, milk, cheese, and wool. Even after they settled in Canaan, the Israelites were farmers and herders, but few were professional merchants. However, unlike more isolated areas of the world, the geography of the ancient Near East encouraged rapid change. Canaan (later known as Palestine), was a land bridge that connected northern Africa and Asia Minor with the rest of the Near East. (See the map on .) Wandering peoples, merchants, skilled workers and artisans, and armies used this land bridge to pass from one part of the ancient world to another. They brought special skills, ideas, and products over this land bridge. Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Hittites, Greeks, Persians, and desert nomads influenced the Israelites. From about 1000 b.c. on, the Israelites became increasingly involved in trading beyond their local marketplaces.
As trading between regions and countries became more important, so did travel. In fact, trade and travel link so completely that discussing one involves discussing the other.
Improvements in transportation made it easier for merchants to trade in distant markets. In early Bible times, trade between countries probably took the form of diplomatic exchanges between kings and had little impact on the economic life of the ordinary people. Most peoples created enough goods and services in their local economies to satisfy their daily needs. However, in later times, trade would increase as transportation improved, making possible the spread of ideas, culture, and material wealth. Unfortunately, this would also give rise to wars and the struggles to maintain empires.
Local Trading and Local Economies
Ancient Palestine was largely an agricultural society. People traded farm products and animals from their flocks in the marketplaces. Farmers brought wheat and barley, grapes and wine, olives and olive oil, figs, dates, and nuts to markets in nearby towns and cities. Herders brought milk, cheese, and butter to city markets all year round. The busiest time of the year for trading was in the late spring when herders also brought young lambs and goats to market. Before the Roman period, fish was not an important food item, even though dried fish could sometimes be found in the marketplace. The development of the fishing business increased by New Testament times.
Throughout the biblical period, trading was usually conducted at the town gate or near the entrance to towns. As trading became more complex, market stalls were set up in central parts of cities. Traveling merchants from other nations also traded their goods in these marketplaces. Traders used a variety of methods to get their goods to the market. Pack animals such as donkeys and oxen carried goods overland. Small boats brought products on rivers and canals, which was often cheaper and easier than overland transport.
In the towns and cities, people made pottery, cloth, metal tools, kettles, and weapons. They usually traded these useful items for food products. In ancient Palestine, items changed hands by a kind of trading called bartering since gold and silver were not plentiful enough to be used to buy things. The use of money in the form of minted coins was not used in Palestine until after the exile (beginning around 538 b.c.). The Persians who controlled Palestine during this time introduced the use of coins in buying and selling.
Trading with the Outside World
After the tribes of Israel were united under King David (around 1000 b.c.), international trade began to increase. Israelite rulers built storage cellars and warehouses to store wine, grain, and olive oil taken from local farmers as a form of taxation. The kings used these items in their courts or traded them with neighboring countries. Although this practice probably was a source of competition for local farmers and merchants, it also created the need for professional traders (merchants) who specialized in the business of buying and selling.
The Bible reports that trade with other nations increased during King Solomon's reign (961-922 b.c.). Solomon needed wood, gold, and precious stones to build and furnish his palace and the temple he built for the Lord in Jerusalem. He traded with King Hiram of Tyre and a trade agreement between them gave Hiram the right to use Israel's port at Ezion-Geber on the Red Sea. In return, Hiram sent Solomon experienced sailors to help the Israelites' journey to Ophir (believed to be in either India or Africa) to obtain gold (1 Kgs 9.26-28). Solomon also traded with the Queen of Sheba (1 Kgs 10.1-10). He bought horses from Musri (Egypt) and Kue (in today's southeast Turkey) for his many chariots (1 Kgs 10.28-29). In addition, Solomon probably charged foreign traders tolls or taxes to pass through Israel's territory.
Trade in Old Testament Times
Israel's Imports and Exports
Because Israel was at the crossroads between Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, it was only a matter of time before the people became involved in trading with other nations.
Israel's main exports continued to be farm products, such as olive oil, wine, and grains (1 Kgs 5.11; Ezek 27.17). They also produced and exported dried nuts (such as pistachios and almonds), perfume, and spices (Gen 43.11). Other important products were dates, figs, wool, and clothing made from wool.
Israel imported raw materials such as tin, lead, silver, copper, iron, gold (1 Kgs 10.10-12), and timber (1 Kgs 5.6-9). White linen cloth (a fine fabric made from the flax plant) probably came regularly from Egypt and Syria, while purple-dyed wool and cloth came from Phoenicia. (See the mini-article called “Phoenicia,”.) Though Israelites made pottery, they imported special pottery from the island of Cyprus and from Greece. Gems, ivory, spices, and other things came to Israel by camel caravans across the desert and by sea from southern Arabia, Ethiopia, and India (1 Kgs 10.2,10,22).
Paying for Merchandise
As trade increased in Israel during the time of Solomon, so did the use of gold and silver to pay for goods. Around this time, merchants and a special group of moneychangers began to weigh and test gold and silver pieces to judge their value and purity. Even so, exchanging one kind of merchandise for another continued to be the main way of doing business.
As noted earlier, the use of money (minted coins) began in Palestine when the Persians ruled the land (530-330 b.c.). Gold darics, silver shekels, and minas were used to buy and sell things (Neh 5.15). Coins circulated from many different places. Even the Persian province of Judea was given permission to make its own silver coins. After the Jewish people won their independence under the Maccabees (164 b.c.), they again made their own coins.
In Jesus' day, Roman coins were the only form of money that could be used to pay taxes to the Roman government (see Luke 20.20-26), though coins of other countries were used in buying and selling. Although the Bible does not give a complete picture of the way local economies functioned, it does mention workers being paid for a day's wage (Matt 20.1,2), and describes the requirement to pay annual temple taxes (Matt 17.24-27). Each of these passages probably refers to a denarius, a coin from Cappadocia. This was also probably the coin Jesus mentioned in Matthew 22.19. The thirty silver coins that Judas was paid to help the authorities arrest Jesus (Matt 26.15) probably amounted to the wage of a typical laborer for approximately four months of work.
Banking and Money in the Ancient World
Travel
Travel in biblical times, besides being difficult and slow, could also be very dangerous. Robbers were a hazard to travelers and merchants as they walked along foot paths. The story of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10.25-27) is an example of the constant danger. Travelers sometimes faced unfriendly or even hostile people in certain areas or towns. Wild animals, such as lions and bears, could also be a serious threat for travelers (Judg 14.5,6; 1 Sam 17.34-36; 2 Kgs 2.23-25). There were very few places to stop for food and fresh water. Roadside inns were sometimes available, but they were also dangerous.
Throughout the biblical period, governments did not maintain most roads, and methods of constructing safe roads were not introduced until the Roman occupation of Palestine. Overgrown and mountainous routes posed hazards for travelers. Strong rains could easily wash out sections of roads or make them slippery. Sometimes rocks would fall and block roads or stick up above the surface of a road and smash the wheels of vehicles. Also there were few bridges in Palestine. Crossing a stream often meant travelers had to wait for a raft to ferry across, or had to walk to find a shallow place they could wade across.
Sea travel was also dangerous (2 Cor 11.25,26). Wind and waves could easily sink a small boat or push it off course. Weather around the Mediterranean Sea was even more stormy in winter, so very few ships tried to sail during winter (Acts 27.27; 28.11). Pirates sometimes raided merchant ships as they moved their cargo on the open sea. For most of their history, the people of Israel did not have good seaports, and unfriendly neighbors often controlled the ones they needed to use. Consequently, the Israelite people did not rely on the sea very much for travel, trading, or fishing.
COMMON FORMS OF TRANSPORTATION IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
Travel over Land
Most travel in Bible times was done on foot. People walked along paths or roads known as “ways.” Many places in the Bible describe individuals or groups of people traveling by foot. Depending on the condition of the road, people could walk up to twenty miles in a day. If the road was not in good shape, or if people were loaded down with goods and supplies, the distance they could cover in a day would be much less.
Roads. Ancient roads were well-worn paths for travel and carrying goods from place to place. As wheeled transportation became more common, roads were widened, elevated so they didn't flood over as much, and sometimes paved. A few paved roads existed in parts of the major cities of Israel, but most roads were simple pathways. Cities and fortresses were often placed near well-traveled roads, but the main roads did not usually pass directly through a city. A separate road connected the main road with the town, and a town gate allowed the people of the town to control which travelers and merchants could enter the town. The number of markets and merchants grew as new roads were built.
Roads led through major religious centers, such as Jerusalem, Samaria, and Damascus in the Near East; Ephesus in Asia Minor; and Athens on the Greek peninsula. Merchants often set up markets in these places. Some sold religious objects or gifts for presenting to the various gods. In Jerusalem, pilgrims could buy small animals and grains from merchants to make sacrificial offerings at the temple during special festivals.
The Persians began to build major highways throughout the Near East around 600 b.c. One famous road had inns and way stations every ten to fifteen miles to shelter royalty and wealthy people. Greek rulers who succeeded Alexander the Great extended and improved roads in Egypt and Syria.
The Romans built the best highways of ancient times. Roman roads were built to make it easier for the Roman army to move freely through the territories it conquered. As the Roman Empire grew, roads were built from the southern Jordan Valley across Asia Minor, throughout Europe, and even in remote places like northern Britain. Some Roman roads were made of large flat stones. The roads were wide enough for chariots and wagons going in different directions to pass each other. Some of these roads, which date from before the time of Christ, can still be seen today.
Main travel routes. The most important road that passed through ancient Israel was the Great Coastal Highway, or the Way of the Sea. This road connected Egypt in the south with Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, and the Land of the Hittites in the north. It followed the coastal valley along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea to Mount Carmel where it split into two branches—one continuing on the eastern side of the Lebanon Mountains, and the other continuing northward along the coast through the cities of Tyre and Sidon.
The King's Highway was another very important road. It went from Egypt to Israel across the southern desert, and then turned north along the eastern side of the Great Rift Valley (the long, north-south valley that contains the Dead Sea, Jordan River, and Lake Galilee), and on to Damascus. For these and other important roads in Palestine, see the map on .
By the time the apostle Paul and other early Christians began to take the good news about Jesus Christ to the far corners of the Roman Empire, the value of the Roman road system was clear. Paul traveled on the Egnatian Way through Macedonia. On his final journey to Rome he traveled from Puteoli, a major port for the nearby cities of Napoli and Pompeii, to the capital city on one of the most famous highways in Italy, the Appian Way. The highways and the transportation system developed by the Romans made it easier for Christian preachers to spread the good news about Jesus, and for groups of Christians to keep in touch with and support one another.
Pack animals. Donkeys are mentioned in the Bible as an early means of transportation (Exod 4.20; Josh 15.18; 1 Sam 25.20,23; 2 Sam 16.1,2; 2 Kgs 4.22; 2 Chr 28.15). Balaam, the prophet, rode a donkey (Num 22.22-35). And the “humble king” mentioned in Zechariah's prophecy is described as riding a donkey (Zech 9.9). Similarly, Jesus rode a young donkey into Jerusalem the week before he was to die on a cross (Matt 21.1-9). Donkeys were also used to carry supplies from place to place (Gen 44.13; Josh 9.4; 1 Sam 16.20).
Horses were more expensive than donkeys. As a means of transportation, horses were originally used only by kings and armies. Eventually, all powerful armies in the Near East used horses to transport soldiers and pull battle chariots (1 Kgs 20.21; Isa 30.16; Jer 6.23; Amos 2.15). Messengers may also have used horses to bring news quickly from place to place (2 Kgs 9.18,19; Esth 8.10). The powerful but slow-moving oxen, on the other hand, were widely used as work animals to pull carts, wagons, and plows (Num 7.3; 2 Sam 6.3-6; Job 1.14).
Caravans. Groups of merchants, pilgrims, or travelers joined together for protection as they traveled with their pack animals (either donkeys or camels, depending on the terrain). Trade and travel by caravans go back as far as recorded history (see, for example, Gen 37.25). Caravans were probably in use long before the rise of sea trade and travel.
As civilizations developed, caravans became very important to the economies of cities and empires. Cities could rise or fall depending on their closeness to important caravan routes; and empires had important interests in protecting trade routes. (See Judges 5.6,7.) Caravans were usually large and their valuable cargo required the protection of soldiers or armed guards. Wealthy travelers, like Abraham, bought slaves to use as armed guards (see Gen 14.14).
Before the time of Alexander the Great (356-323 b.c.), land caravans contributed to trade in Palestine as they moved from Asia Minor following the western edge of the Syrian Desert. They supplied the markets of Aleppo, Hamath, and Damascus before heading south into Palestine. From there, they would travel to Egypt or to places near the Red Sea.
Other caravans came from central and southern Mesopotamia. Although this land was directly east of Palestine, most of these caravans had to travel north along the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys rather than directly west through the Syrian Desert. These routes, though long, were relatively safe, and caravans could make stops along the way to refresh their animals before traveling south into Palestine. Some routes went directly west from Babylon and Accad to Damascus, but these routes were dangerous because they crossed many miles of desert.
In the deserts of the ancient Near East, Egypt and northern Africa, the animal most often used in caravans was the camel. Some nomads who invaded the Israelite people rode on camels (Judg 6.3-5; 7.12; 1 Sam 30.17). Camels are the best pack animals for desert travel because they are strong, have natural protection from the environment, and can travel long distances without needing to stop for water.
In hot weather, on a long journey, a camel usually carried no more than three hundred fifty pounds. But on short journeys, in cooler weather, or to evade customs duties, a camel's load might be increased to a thousand pounds. Loads were usually divided into two parts and tied on either side of the camel's back. Passengers were often carried in large baskets tied on each side of the camel.
Camels are easier to tend during long travels through barren land. They can bite off and digest the thorny plants that grow there. Camels also have calluses on their bodies that insulate them from the heat of the desert sand. While a sandstorm might blind or injure horses or donkeys, camels have very long eyelashes to shield their eyes, and can close their nostrils to protect themselves from flying dust and sand. Because they store water in their humps, camels have the capacity to go without water for many days. They also have an acute sense of smell that makes them useful in finding sources of water.
Caravans traveled when there was enough water and pasture land. In progress, a caravan averaged two to three miles per hour for eight to fifteen hours each day or, in hot weather, each night. If possible, it was arranged to stop at a “caravansary,” (an inn for caravan travelers) which was usually built on a hill or elevation, and consisted of a courtyard, surrounded on all sides by many small rooms, with stables or storerooms underneath.
Vehicles. Archaeologists guess that the invention of the wheel occurred sometime between 10,000 and 8000 b.c. From existing evidence, it appears that wheels were attached to carts no later than 4000 b.c. when the inhabitants of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Sumer placed sledges on wheels to transport goods. At first, wheels were solid disks of wood. Wheels with spokes were first introduced around 2700 b.c.
In ancient times, three types of vehicles were used: the two-wheeled cart, the four-wheeled wagon, and the chariot. Two-wheeled carts were made of wood or woven basket material. Oxen, donkeys or even people pulled them. Carts were used to transport goods, baggage, and supplies. Four-wheeled wagons hauled large items such as building supplies. Wheeled vehicles were efficient on good roads and on the level plains of Palestine. They were not as reliable on rocky and dangerous mountain roads and so were not initially used for long-distance transportation of goods. Later, Roman engineers introduced wagons with undercarriages and a pivoting front axle for easier maneuvering.
Many ancient peoples used chariots as early as 3000 b.c. Battle scenes portrayed on pottery or carved in stone depict chariots in combat. Chariots were two-wheeled vehicles that one or more horses pulled. They were large enough to hold one or two soldiers with their weapons. Chariots were used for hunting by kings or wealthy people who could afford to buy and keep their own horses. The speed and mobility of chariots made a decisive factor in military campaigns. The dominance of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians at different periods in Bible times is partly due to their well-equipped armies and use of chariots in battle. During the time of Solomon and the divided kingdom, Israel also made extensive use of chariots (1 Kgs 4.26; 2 Chr 1.14; 9.25). A horse and chariot could easily travel thirty miles in a day; and up to forty-five miles a day when necessary.
Water Travel
Rafts, boats, and ships. Small rafts made from logs and dugout canoes were the first boats used for traveling and fishing along the Mediterranean coast. Few trees existed along the Nile River in Egypt, so ancient people made rafts and small boats from bundles of reeds. These were tied together and shaped to form boats. Reed boats were used as early as 3500 b.c. Eventually, larger wooden boats were made. Pictures painted on vases and temple walls show that these boats existed well before 2000 b.c.
Throughout the history of Egypt, boat transportation on the Nile River was very important for trade and culture. Boats traveled the four hundred miles from Syene (near modern-day Aswan) to where the river empties into the Mediterranean Sea.
Ships were used to transport people or goods on the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. Some boats were powered by ten or more rowers, and some had both rowers and sails. Usually, these early boats were steered by large oars. Early sea travel was limited to daytime journeys along the coast with stops each night. Even so, trade and travel developed on the Mediterranean, along the Arabian Gulf, the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean as far as India. Sea trade was greatly advanced by the Phoenicians, who were the first to learn how to navigate by the stars. The Phoenicians (based in Tyre) traveled across the Mediterranean as far as Gibraltar and the Atlantic coasts of Spain and North Africa. Between 2000 and 1000 b.c., ship travel became more common on the Mediterranean Sea. The Minoan people of Crete, the Greeks, Syrians, and Phoenicians all built fleets of merchant ships, along with warships that could be used to defend their lands or attack their enemies. The invasion of Egypt by these “Sea Peoples” took place some years after the Hebrew people had left Egypt and settled in Canaan.
During the time that the Israelite people ruled all or part of Canaan (1030-586 b.c.), the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Assyrians built merchant ships and warships with two or three decks. One or two decks of rowers powered the boat. A standard-sized ship might have eight rowers per side, but a very large ship could have up to sixty rowers, thirty on each side often arranged in double rows. Israel's King Solomon built a fleet of ships at Ezion-Geber (1 Kgs 9.26-28; 2 Chr 8.17,18). These ships were used to carry goods back and forth to Ophir. But since Israel did not have ports on the Mediterranean Sea, Israelites never built a strong navy and had to rely on merchants from other countries for trading and sea travel.
Small boats and fishing craft. Within Israel, however, smaller boats were important to the economy of the area around Lake Galilee, especially during the Roman period. Archaeologists have discovered the remains of a small boat in this freshwater lake that dates from the time of Jesus (see the illustration on ). Such small boats were used for both fishing and transportation. They are often mentioned in the Gospels (Matt 14.22; Mark 1.19; Luke 5.2; John 6.19).
Little mention is made of seagoing ships in the New Testament, except those that the apostle Paul sailed on during his trip to Rome (Acts 20.38; 21.6; 27.2; 28.11). At this time, passengers like Paul had to travel on merchant ships that carried grain or other cargo (Acts 21.1-3; 27.10). The Romans had a very active “grain fleet,” which brought Egyptian grain from Alexandria to the capital city of Rome in Italy. When space allowed, these cargo ships also took passengers.
Special Reasons for Travel
Holy travel. The people of Israel traveled to special holy places such as Shiloh, Dan, Bethel, and Jerusalem to worship and celebrate religious festivals (1 Sam 1; 1 Kgs 12.26-33; 2 Kgs 10.18-24; Amos 5.4,5). Joshua called the people of Israel together at Shechem (Josh 24). And King Solomon gathered the people in Jerusalem to celebrate the Festival of Shelters and to dedicate the temple they had built for the Lord there (1 Kgs 8.1-13,62-65).
At the time of Jesus, it was the custom for the people of Israel to travel to Jerusalem three times each year to celebrate the major pilgrimage festivals—Passover, the Harvest Festival (Pentecost), and the Festival of Shelters. In Acts, Luke describes how the early apostles of Jesus traveled around preaching and teaching the good news. More than half of the book tells about Paul's many travels by land and sea. In addition to the travel undertaken by Jews and Christians, the followers of pagan gods also made pilgrimages to holy places, shrines, and temples.
Wars. A major reason for travel concerned the movement of military forces. Israel's armies often traveled outside their boundaries to battle with unfriendly neighbors (see 2 Sam 8.1-12). Israel itself was attacked by invaders from other lands including Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia. In 331 b.c. Alexander the Great passed through Palestine on his way to invade Egypt. His army was said to have traveled as far as forty-five miles in one day. Later, when the Roman army became the most powerful army in the world, they could conquer large areas partly because they had built good roads that made it possible for their troops and supplies to move quickly and easily.
Communication. Land or sea travel was the means of sending messages to different places. The Old Testament mentions messengers who carried news, orders, and other messages from the king to his own military commanders or to rulers in neighboring countries (2 Sam 2.5; 3.14; 11.19).
The Roman imperial post carried messages important to the Roman Empire. A messenger would journey by carriage, changing horses at staging posts along the way. In the New Testament, Paul and other church leaders communicated with groups of Christians living in various parts of the Mediterranean world by sending letters that messengers delivered by hand. As civilization became more connected by trading, the Christian message of hope traveled throughout the ancient world.